Chemistry in Natural Science

Constituting the scientific learning of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reply of these materials are studied. Chemistry also absorbs understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms for use in larger-scale applications. Most chemical procedure can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often known as "the central science" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences.

Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, a set of values combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to expand with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass. The discovery of the chemical elements and the concept of Atomic Theory began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a basic understanding of states of matter, ions, chemical bonds and chemical reactions. The success of this science led to a complementary chemical industry that now acting a significant role in the world economy.

Banknote

A banknote (often known as a bill or simply a note) is a type of negotiable instrument, a promissory note made by a bank payable to the bearer on demand, used as money, and in many jurisdictions is legal tender. Along with coins, banknotes build up the cash or bearer forms of all modern money. With the exception of non-circulating high-value or precious metal commemorative issues, coins are commonly used for lower valued monetary units, while banknotes are used for higher values.

Photographic Printing

Photographic printing is the method of producing a final image for viewing, usually on sensitized paper from a previously prepared photographic negative.

The procedure consists of three major steps, performed in a photographic darkroom or within an automated photo printing machine:

1. Exposure of the picture onto the sensitized paper using a contact printer or enlarger.

2. Processing of the latent image through a more than one step chemical immersion process.

1. Development of the uncovered image.

2. Optionally Stopping improvement by neutralizing, diluting or removing developing agent.

3. Fixing the final print by dissolving remaining unexposed/undeveloped light-sensitive liquid.

4. Washing thoroughly to eliminate chemicals used in processing, protecting the finished print from fading and decay.

3. If finished on glossy paper, ferrotyping to enhance the reflective gloss.

4. Optional Toning of the print through extra chemical processes.

5. Texturing and drying of the finishing print.

Inkless Printers

Inkless printers use paper with colorless dye crystals embedded connecting the two outer layers of the paper. When the printer is twisted on, heat from the drum causes the crystals to colorize at different rates and become visible. The technology was worked on by Zink Imaging and is now accessible (2007). Because of the way it prints, the printer can be as little as a business card, the images are waterproof, and in fact, one product slated for release by Zink Imaging is a digital camera with a printer built into it. Xerox is also working on an inkless printer which will use a extraordinary reusable paper coated with a few micrometres of UV light sensitive chemicals. The printer will use a particular UV light bar which will be able to write and erase the paper. As of early 2007 this technology is at a halt in development and the text on the printed pages can only last between 16-24 hours before fading.

Integrated circuit

Integrated circuit viewing memory blocks, logic and input/output pads around the periphery Microchips with a transparent window, showing the integrated circuit inside. Note the fine silver-colored wires that attach the integrated circuit to the pins of the package. A monolithic integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mostly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been contrived in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.

A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit build of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board.

Minicomputer

Minicomputer is a mostly outmoded term for a class of multi-user computers which generate the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the largest multi-user systems (traditionally, mainframe computers) and the smallest single-user systems (microcomputers or personal computers). Formerly this class created a distinct group with its own hardware and operating systems notably having smaller address space (notice the cited numbers of bits in a data word, ranging from 8 to 24 bits commonly around 16-bits). While the distinction between mainframe computers and smaller computers residue fairly clear, contemporary middle-range computers are not well differentiated from personal computers, being typically just a more powerful but still compatible version of a personal computer. More modern conditions for such machines consist of midrange systems (common in IBM parlance), workstations (common in Sun Microsystems and general UNIX/Linux parlance), and servers.

Microcomputer

A microcomputer is mostly often taken to mean a computer with a microprocessor (µP) as its CPU. Another common characteristic of these computers is that they take up physically small amounts of space. Desktop computers, video game consoles, laptop computers, tablet PCs, and a lot of handheld strategy may all be considered examples of microcomputers. Most microcomputers serve only a particular user at a time, but some, in the form of PCs and workstations running e.g. a UNIX(-like) operating system, may cater to a number of users concurrently. The µP does the greater part of the job of calculating on and manipulating data that all computers do.

Mainframes

Mainframes (often colloquially referred to as big iron) are enormous and expensive computers used mostly by government institutions and large companies for mission critical applications, usually bulk data processing such as censuses, industry/consumer statistics, ERP, and financial transaction processing.

The term originated during the early 1970s with the introduction of lesser, fewer complex computers such as the DEC PDP-8 and PDP-11 series, which became known as minicomputers or in a minute minis. The industry/users then coined the term "mainframe" to describe bigger, earlier types (previously known simply as "computers").

The first bullets

Advances in one either resulted beginning or precipitated advances in the other. Originally, bullets were surrounding metallic or stone balls placed in front of an explosive charge of gun powder at the end of a closed tube. As firearms became more scientifically advanced, from 1500 to 1800, bullets changed very little. They remained uncomplicated round lead balls, called rounds, differing only in their diameter.

The development of the hand culverin and matchlock arquebus brought regarding the use of cast lead balls as projectiles. "Bullet" is consequential from the French word "boulette" which roughly means "little ball". The original musket bullet was a spherical lead ball two sizes slighter than the bore, wrapped in a loosely-fitted paper patch which served to hold the bullet in the barrel firmly upon the powder. (Bullets that were not firmly upon the concentrate upon firing risked causing the barrel to explode, with the condition known as a "short start".) The loading of muskets was, therefore, easy with the old smooth-bore Brown Bess and comparable military muskets. The original muzzle-loading rifle, on the other hand, with a more intimately fitting ball to take the rifling grooves, was loaded with difficulty, particularly when the bore of the barrel was dirty from previous firings ("fouled"). For this reason, early rifles were not generally used for military purposes. Early rifle bullets necessary cloth patches to grip the rifling grooves, and to hold the bullet securely against the powder.

The first half of the nineteenth century saw a different change in the shape and function of the bullet. In 1826, Delirque, a French infantry officer, imaginary a breech with abrupt shoulders on which a spherical bullet was rammed down until it caught the rifling grooves.

Bullet

A bullet is a rock-hard projectile propelled by a firearm or air gun and is normally made from metal (usually lead). A bullet (in contrast to a shell) does not contain explosives, and damages the intended target solely by imparting kinetic energy upon impact. Modern bullets for firearms are generally part of a cartridge, also known as a round. In contrast, bullets for air guns are not part of a cartridge. The word "bullet" is sometimes used to refer to the grouping of bullet, case, gunpowder and primer more properly known as a cartridge or round.; the Oxford English Dictionary definition of a bullet is "a projectile of lead ... for firing from a rifle, revolver etc."

JAR Files

A JAR file has a manifest file situated in the path META-INF/MANIFEST.MF. The entries in the manifest file conclude how the JAR file will be used. JAR files which are intended to be executed as separate programs will have one of their classes specified as the "main" class. The obvious file would have an entry such as

Main-Class: myPrograms.MyClass

Such JAR files are characteristically started with a command similar to

java -jar foo.jar

These files can also include a Classpath entry, which identifies other JAR files to be overloaded with the JAR. This entry consists of a list of absolute or relation paths to other JAR files. Although intended to simplify JAR use, in practice, it turns out to be infamously brittle as it depends on all the relevant JARs being in the exact locations specified when the entry-point JAR was built. To change versions or locations of libraries, a new manifest is required.

JAR

In computing, a JAR file (or Java ARchive) file used to deal out a set of Java classes. It is used to store compiled Java classes and connected metadata that can constitute a program.

* WAR (file format) (Web Application aRchive) files are also Java archives which store XML files, java classes, Java Server Pages and extra objects for Web Applications.

* EAR (file format) (Enterprise ARchive) files are also Java archives which store XML files, java classes and additional objects for Enterprise Applications.

* RAR (file format) (Resource Adapter aRchive) files are also Java archives which store XML files, java classes and added objects for J2EE Connector Architecture (JCA) applications.

JAR files can be created and extracted by the "jar" command that comes with the JDK. It can be done using zip tools, but as WinZip has a custom of renaming all-uppercase directories and files in lower case, this can raise support calls with whoever shaped the JAR or the tool authors themselves. WinRAR, on the additional hand, retains the original case of filenames.

Grape

A grape is the non-climacteric fruit that grows on the permanent and deciduous woody vines of the folks Vitaceae. Grapes develop up in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be black, blue, golden, green, purple, red, pink, brown, peach or white. They can be eaten raw or used for producting jam, grape juice, jelly, wine and grape germ oil. Development of grapevines occurs in vineyards, and is called viticulture. One who studies and practises increasing grapes for wine is called a viticulturist. The leaves of the grape vine itself are painstaking safe to eat and are used in the production of dolmades.

Lighthouse of Alexandria

The Pharos of Alexandria was a large tower built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt to give out as that port's landmark, and later, its lighthouse.

With a height variously expected at between 115 and 150 meters (383 - 450 ft) it was among the tallest man-made structures on Earth for many centuries, and was recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of the World by Antipater of Sidon. It was the third big and tallest building after the two Great Pyramids (of Khufu and Khafra) for its whole life. Some scientists calculate approximately a much taller height exceeding 180 metres that would make the tower the tallest building up to the 14th century.

Traffic Claming

Traffic calming is a set of strategies used by urban planners and traffic engineers which aims to slow down traffic and get better safety for pedestrians and bicyclists, although some of these features can also be hazardous to cyclists. It is now comparatively common in Europe, especially Northern Europe; less so in North America.Traffic calming has conventionally been justified on the grounds of pedestrian safety and reduction of noise and local air pollution which are side effects of the traffic. However, it has become more and more apparent that streets have many social and recreational functions which are severely impaired by fast car traffic. For much of the twentieth century, streets were designed by engineers who were charged only with ensuring traffic flow and not with development other functions of streets. The rationale for traffic reassuring is now broadening to include designing for these functions.

Bareboat charter

A bareboat charter is an arrangement for the hiring of a boat, whereby no crew or provisions are contained as party of the agreement; instead, the people who rent the boat from the owner are responsible for taking care of such things.

There are legal differences between a bareboat charter and another types of charter arrangement, such as crewed or luxury yacht charter, commonly called time or voyage charters. In these charters the charterer can direct where the ship will go but the owner of the ship tells possession of the ship through its employment of the master and crew. In a bare-boat or demise charter, on the other hand, the owner gives possession of the ship to the charterer and the charterer retriew its own master and crew. The bare-boat charterer is sometimes known as a "disponent owner".

Banana boat

A banana boat (or a boat made of bananas), often referred to simply as a banana, is an unpowered recreational boat designed to be pulled by a bigger boat. Riders sit astride a big tube which is supported by two smaller tubes which provide balance and footrests, permit them to experience some of the thrill of moving fast and close to the water much more easily and safely than by water-skiing or surfing and they are therefore a popular ride for children. Many large motor yachts or luxury yachts have a banana as one of their onboard "toys", but any powered boat can pull a banana, and they are sometimes available as a commercial ride at holiday resorts. Most models seat middle of three and ten people. Two models with two seating tubes side by side are available. Banana boats are often yellow and are sometimes actually builted into the shape of a banana.

Types of boats

Airboat

Airboats are needlly flat-bottomed vessels propelled in a forward direction by an aircraft type propeller and powered by either an aircraft or automotive engine. The engine and propeller are covered in a protective metal cage that prevents objects, i.e., tree limbs, branches, clothing, beverage containers, wildlife from coming in contact with the whirling propeller, which could cause devastating falt to the vessel and traumatic injury to the operator and passengers.

The propeller gives a rearward column of air that propels the airboat forward. Steering is accomplished by forced air passing across vertical rudders. There must be a forceful airflow in order to the vessel to be steered. Airboats not have brakes and are incapable of traveling in reverse. Stopping and reversing direction are dependent upon operator/pilot/driver skill.

Parts of a boat

The roughly horizontal, but cambered structures spanning the hull of the boats are reffer to as the "deck". In a ship there are often many, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one. The similar but generally lighter structure which spans a raised cabin is a coach-roof. The "floor" of a cabin is properly known as the sole but is more likely to be called the floor. (A floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel.) The underside of a deck is called the deck head. The keel is a lengthwise structural member to which the frames are constant one (sometimes referred to as a backbone). The vertical surfaces splitting the internal space are known as bulkheads. The front of a boat is known as the bow or prow. The rear of the boat is known as the stern. The right side of the boat is called starboard and the left side of the boat is called port.

ship
Usually a ship has enough size to carry its own boats, such as lifeboats, dinghies, or runabouts. A rule of thumb is "a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship can't fit on a boat". Consequently submarines are referred to as "boats", because early submarines were little enough to be carried aboard a ship in transit to distant waters. Other types of big vessels which are traditionally called boats are the Great Lakes freighter, the riverboat, and the ferryboat. Though big enough to carry their own boats and/or heavy cargoes, these examples are designed for operation on inland or protected coastal waters. Often local law and regulation will define the correct size (or the number of masts) which a boat requires to become a ship. Nautical meaning is related to sailors, particularly customs and practices at sea. Naval is the adjective pertaining to ships, step by step in common usage it has come to be more particularly associated with the noun "navy".